Linguistics and Language Essay

? preserve about the 2 theories of 1st discourses askment and choose which intimately ten fittingand provide examples and relevant literature superstar you find Michelle In this set about, I bequeath condone as well as comp atomic number 18 devil theories of starting line quarrel accomplishment, behaviorism and innatism. I depart explore the differences surrounded by them in such categories as the role of the scholarly person, the role of the purlieu and as well as their strengths and weaknesses. I will then state and explain which one I find more tenable with examples of relevant literature. differentiateing of the Learner behaviourism, credited to B. F.Sk informal in the 1950s, states that the apprentice socks nonhing to disunite with, he is an empty slate o1 to be taught. The learner is passive and learns by positive-negative living, scarce repeating what he hears. Innatism, credited to Noam Chomsky in 1965, states that the learner is outfit from birth for row. The learner is fit with a cub, a spoken expression learn device. This device all(prenominal)ows the learner to discover the receives of his expression, any delivery. Role of the Environment Behaviorism states that the role of the surroundings is key and vital to the erudition process.The environment is the bustling agent magic spell the learner is the passive agent. The environment produces the necessary wording comment for the learner. It is up to the environment to give positive and negative reinforcement for the learner. Innatism states that the role of the environment is negligible because it hardly acts as the trigger for learning. It is besides thought the environment is flawed and stooget be relied upon to forever give perfect information. T here(predicate)fore, it is up to the learner to find the rules of the talking too2 . Strengths There be a few strengths to curb the behaviorism theory.It is easy to monitor the learners performance. This is how pargonnts (as teachers) comm altogether teach their s nourishrren, by nurturing which puts emphasis on the role of the environment. This theory muckle as well as explain why learners drop the ability to memorize. On the opposite hand, thither argon several strengths of the innatism theory. A learner can non memorize all the possible different voice communication and grammar combinations that he learns done the environment. The greenhorn helps the learner to popularize rules and make his own creative use of the wording.A baby will resist using an moment form because of over-generalizing, and he will create his own form of a word match to the rules that he has internalized. And these rules dont necessarily conform to adult grammar rules which include many a(prenominal) exceptions. By applying these internalized and generalized rules, a minor is able to acquire a actors line at a fast pace. o3 Weaknesses The Behaviorism theory only accounts for the perform ance of the learner, and not on his competence. The learner is passive, so this theory does not focus on the learners mind and knowledge.It likewise does not explain why tiddlerren acquire a language so pronto even if they atomic number 18 exposed to different environments. In addition, this theory alike doesnt offer an explanation of why squirtren over-generalize rules such as the impartial past filtrate of irregular verbs even though they hear irregular forms in the environment. There atomic number 18 also several weaknesses to the Innatism theory. oneness of the first weaknesses is that it demands the existence of the row learnedness Device (LAD), its existence is difficult to wax and is immeasurable.This theory also doesnt take into account different kinds of learners, middling ideal learners with ideal grammar. The environment plays a minor role in this theory, so it doesnt take into account the cordial aspect of the learner. My whimsy Looking at the two of th ese theories, I find the Innatism theory the close to tenable. In my own experience with my chelaren and students, the learners do not al expressions precedent my behavior. This usually occurs with irregular patterns, particularly past tense verbs.This is similar to the wug shield where a nestling will form a past tense of a verb that he has never heard in the beginning by applying the general grammar rules that he has learned. This behavior cannot be memorized and must be driven by an internal structure. An otherwise reason to support this theory is that learners with impaired intelligence activity have been able to learn the structure of language. It has also been proven that American Sign address which is taught to the deaf also has its own language structure. In addition, the creation of Creole languages supports the theory. As a Creole develops, grammar and structure are built in.The LAD would account for the formation of these languages as well as for creative uses of l anguage by a learner. Conclusion In this es differentiate I have explained two theories of language erudition, behaviorism and innatism. In doing so, I have explained the different roles of the learner as well as the environment. I have also explored strengths and weaknesses of each theory and why I support the innatism theory over the behaviorism theoryo4 . o1Good one, I forgot this in my essay o2Do you thoughtualise you should mention poverty of input here? o3ording? o4Well done Michelle.Do you commemorate you should include UG and CPH in your essay? I think UG is an important part of Innatism, what do you think? __________________________________________________________________ David One theory of first language acquisition is Universal Grammar, set forth by Chomsky in 1959 as a response to Skinners (1957) Verbal Behavior. Whereas the latter theory, proposed that the learning of language is through with(predicate) the acquisition of habits, which are positively or negativel y reinforced, Chomsky posited that serviceman come into the world with an ignorant language faculty in their mind, or a world-wide grammar.Universal grammar is built off of two propositions, that all languages are governed by a set of universal principles, and that the mind is equipped with parameters which are set intuitively by the nipper according to the language input they receive. UG researchers have found a number of universal principles. One of the more prominent principles is structure dependency. Structure dependency states that all sentences careless(predicate) of the language are built off of propositions that carry both a noun and a verb phrase in other words, every sentence in every language must have at least a subject and a verb (Chomsky, 1959).One parameter setting that is contained in the LAD is the manoeuver setting. Some languages such as English are passing game first, other languages such as Japanese are head last. divers(a) billets have been used to su pport the existence of universal grammar. Chomsky (1959) has proposed the poverty of the stimulus argument, positing that the input children receive cannot account for what they produce, and therefore, children must have an innate facility. He argues that the input is marred in two shipway first it contains a hodgepodge of performance slips, and fleckly, it does not contain any negative evidence.How do children acquire language when they dont know what they cant say, or how do they learn to speak correctly when the input they here is at times in correct? They do so, according to Chomsky, through this innate capacity. Jackendoff (1994) offers another argument in support of universal grammar, the argument from expressive variety. Jackendoff argues that given that languages are recursive, there is simply no way of storing all of the possible sentences one can create in ones mind. In other words, sentences dont come from habits, only if rather from creative expression.Universal gramm ar has had a lot of capital in language acquisition theory, although it has been critiqued on some fronts. Connectionists, particularly, N. Ellis (2006) has argued that language acquisition is not due to an innate faculty and the creative expression of humans, simply equates it to a usage-based approach where children learning piecemeal frequently reoccurring chunks of language. Another argument against the innate language faculty is that UG researchers have claimed that only humans have entranceway to syntax, yet this has been found not to be true.Certain animals, such as the humpback whale and songbirds have been found to possess a recursive syntax, suggesting that syntax and language whitethorn have evolved from lower order primates. Whereas universal grammar begins with language from the privileged, Sociocultural theory, another prominent first language acquisition, posits language acquisition begins from the outside. Vygotsky, the founder of sociocultural theory, argues that language is a psychological tool, which children acquire and learn to manipulate as they interact with their environment and with more up to(p) peers (Vygotsky, 1978).Children first learn language as they interact with their parents. Parents use caretaker speech, which makes it easier for the child to understand and grasp a persist on the concepts of the language. As the child begins to understand and produce simple utterances, they are able to use the language to mediate their psychological functioning (Vygotsky, 1978). Vygotsky argues that children begin learning language by first learning single words, which are complete(a) meaning.As they develop their language skills, and engage in well-disposed speech, single word sentences are augmented through incorporation of non-meaningful elements, such as functionwords, and the childs thoughts and words begin to develop more sense meanings. For instance, where the word cat for the 1 or two year old child could have served as an exem plar for all cats, by the time the child is nine, and having undergone a variety of experiences related to cat, they have imbibed the word with their own rummy senses.Thus syntax and word senses expand, the more a child learns. Now, whereas social speech began from one and developed into many, inner speech, the speech that goes on inside of our heads becomes more and more truncated.Vygotsky argues, contrary to Piaget, that egocentric speech does not vaporise rather it becomes internalized as inner speech. And this inner speech is something that could not be understood by anybody but the person who is thinking it. Vygotsky suggests that just as people who have known each other for many years, and who have had a large amount of experiences together exhibit language tendencies of gelded syntax because of their historical shared experience, a persons inner speech also exhibits this characteristic, but even more so the hooey of thought is nothing but psychological predicates (Vygotsky , 1978).One of the primary ways humans learn anything, according to Vygotsky, is through the zone of proximal schooling. This concept explains that what a person can do today with assistance, they can do tomorrow by themselves (Vygotsky, 1978). Applied to first language acquisition, the child may receive help from an expert, such as their parents, who point at objects and say their name, for example, cat. After seeing this, the child may repeat cat like a shot aft(prenominal). The next day, as the child sees the cat, it says the word cat without needing to be told by their parents.The closer an expert is able to gauge ones ZPD, the more optimal the learning environment becomes. __________________________________________________________Laleh Innatism Chomsky (1959) opposed Skinners (1957) behaviouristic viewpoint in language acquisition, who claimed that language acquisition takes place through habit formation and stimulus-response. Skinner, believed that as a child acquires lang uage, he internalizes a finite set of responses to stimuli. Chomsky on the other hand, believes that language acquisition is rule governed and that children construct their own rules, which may not comply with adult rules.Chomsky maintains that languages lie in of an infinite number of sentences and cannot be learned through habit formation. Language is too complex to be learned in such a short amount of time (Chomsky, 1959). He believes that every human is natural with an innate language learning capacity, which is embedded in the language acquisition device (LAD). Chomsky believes that all language share grammatical structures. This is called universal grammar (UG). deduction of UG includes poverty of stimulus, which explains how children acquire the language despite their limited exposure and unseasonable input they may receive.Another evidence for UG that languages are recursive, (Jackendoff, 1994). It is impossible to know all the possible combinations however, they are learn ed by children. According to UG, there must be some sort of innate capacity that provides the spare information. The fact that children are resistant to chastening once again proves that language is developed through an innate capacity. According to Chomsky (1959), all languages share principles, which are invariable across languages. For example, noun phrases and verb phrases. This is called structure dependency.All languages have verbs and nouns. What distinguishes languages from each other according to Chomsky, are parameters, which are language specific. For example, some languages are head first, and some are head last. In relation to UG, Eric Lenneberg (1967) introduced the Critical occlusive Hypothesis (CPH), which is a window of language learning opportunity before puberty. Proponents of CPH believe after this period, language learning becomes a much more difficult task and adults tend to rely on other mechanisms such as problem understand skills, reasoning, and deductiv e training to learn a language.Evidence of the CP is for example abused children, who despite being removed from the environment where they were deprived of social give, were not able to learn the language. There have been many criticisms to Chomskys UG, for example, the LAD cannot be located and is immeasurable. Also, Chomskys theories command the effects of social contact and the environment on language learning. neighborly interactionist Vygotsky (1978) was a strong proponent of the social interaction hypothesis. He believed that learning takes place through social interaction, and give and take of information with caregivers, parents, or peers.According toVygotsky, children begin with external speech, which could consist of one word only, but have the meaning of a whole sentence. Gradually, as the child grows older, he develops more complex and longer sentences and associates more meaning with his words.A child also engages in private speech (similar to adults), which is us ually meant for problem solving or thinking out loud, but is not meant for sharing although articulated. Vygotsky believes that as the child develops more linguistic skills, this private speech becomes internalized and turns into inner speech, which is pure meaning, and does not consist of subjects it is predicated.On the contrary, Piaget (1955) believed that inner speech simply disappears. Vygotsky also proposes the Zone of Proximal growth (ZPD), which is the distance between what a child can do without help, and what he can do when scaffolding or support is provided. When a child receives the right scaffolding, he will ultimately be able to perform the task on his own. __________________________________________ Karen Innatism Noam Chomsky (1959) introduces Innatism as a rebuttal to B. F. Skinner (1957) and his Behaviorist Theory.In direct opposition to the environment being the active participant in language learning, Chomsky flips behaviorism on its head and presents the learne r as having a primary role while environment becomes here and nowary. Within the Universal Grammar Theory (UG), Noam Chomsky (1959) presents a Language Acquisition Device (LAD) that is responsible for the language learning process. Purely biological, language is filtered through the innate LAD that is structured with principles that are unchanging and parameters that vary according to the language being learned.Proofs to support this theory are many. Syntax and the head-first/head-last parameter are two such proofs. As a child learns language, they cast to one of only two possibilities in any given language head-first and head-last and language is formed through recursion and syntactic movement that follow a pattern within a particular language. This furnishs that language is rule-governed and that the LAD is programmed with language foundations from which a child can develop. That children are resistant to correction follows this same thought as they develop language through t he LAD.Language is not linked to intelligence as we see in wiz damaged adults who are completely coherent in language skills and others who are cognitively normal but cannot speak correctly. Stroke victims also show that, depending on the area of the brain that is affected, intelligence and speech are not linked. Brocas and Wernickes Aphasias show that certain areas of the brain affect speech while intelligence remains unaffected. As evidenced by the Gopnik family, ancestral impairments have also proven that a glitch in the UG can be passed down from one generation to another, thus proving that the LAD is then biological (Jackendoff, 113).Eric Lennebergs Critical Period Hypothesis (1967) and the cases of wild children are yet further evidence. Lenneberg holds that the LAD becomes dormant or ineffective after a certain age around the age of 12 and this is why children acquire language so much more quickly than adults who are attempting the same. Through these studies of particul ar children who did not learn language and who were void of contact with language as a whole, it shows that the juvenileer the child, the more fully they were able to learn language. Once a child was passed the age of 12 or so, they were unable to acquire proper language skills.The younger children were not only able to learn more adequately but then went on to continue in the language learning process as a normal adult would. As many proofs as there are for Chomskys UG and the LAD, criticisms are plentiful as well. First and foremost, where is the evidence that a device like LAD exists? It certainly has not been located in the brain, therefore, it remains immeasurable and some have serious doubt as to its legitimacy. This theory also limits the role of the environment and gives no account for the social context of the language learning process.It idealizes the speaker and the grammar itself to a certain grade and packages the entire process a bit too neatly. Cognitive Development Theory Jean Piagets (1955) work in cognitive development is foundational on many levels. Watching his own children, nature, and certain study groups of young children, Piaget introduces a theory that is completely developmental. As a child is sterilize and developed (both biologically and cognitively), they are able to assimilate, accommodate and adapt refreshing experiences. Underlying in this theory is reasoning and logic.The role of the environment is minimal and the learner is vital but only as they are cognitively developed and defecate for new experiences. A child will not learn what they are not cognitively developed to receive at that point no matter what the instruction. Piaget holds to the notion of children developing schema. As a new experience is received and they are biologically and cognitively ready to receive it, they will develop new schema to fit into the poser of schema that they already have developed. This theory also relies heavily on egocentric and socia lized speech with each one serving a different function.Egocentric speech is what is used (mainly by children) when words and thoughts are spoken out loud but the one speaking is only dealing with their own thoughts and ideas. Socialized speech is a shift away(p) from egocentric speech where one simply derives pleasure from speaking to being a way of exchanging their ideas or opinions. Although Piagets work and theory is critical, it neither accounts for the childs behavior as a whole nor for the cognitive development after the stage of formal operation is reached. It offers vast perceptiveness into the developmental process of a child but little instruction on attaining language skills.It was also based solely on a Western model and is therefore quite limiting. SECOND LANGUAGE science Input & Output Hypotheses As a result of older models of language teaching where attention was given to language grammar, Krashen (1981) places his focus on communication input. He contends that if the learner is given a chance to absorb the language, they will be better equipped to acquire it. Rather than forcing output immediately, Krashen holds to a silent period where learners have the privilege of just listening to language before attempting itmuch like a young child would in learning their mother tongue.Comprehensible input (i + 1) is the formula that Krashen holds to for optimal language learning for second language learners (SLLs). This states that if a SLL is offered input that is only about beyond what they already know, acquisition will take place. He also makes a differentiation between language learning and language acquisition, claiming that acquisition is what is needed for the language learning process. Criticisms of Krashens hypothesis are that input alone cannot account for acquisition and that some grammatical forms cannot be learned without being taught.Swain (1985) introduces her Output Hypothesis in contrast to Krashen and claims that no matter the inpu t, if the output is unintelligible, acquisition has not truly occurred. It is the output that forces learners to deal with the grammatical processing and figure out what works. Through output, a learner can realize their problem areas, can experiment with new areas they are unsure of, and gives them the chance to analyze problems they are having in their language learning process.CONCLUSIONAs we can see in first and second language acquisition, there is not simply one way to which theorists hold in the process of learning or acquiring language. In smell at how one acquires their mother tongue, however, insights can be made into second language acquisition as well. In fact, it is through first language acquisition theories that other theories can spring from to delve into how second language acquisition occurs. These insights become helpful in the classroom and give the teacher foundational aspects that they can build off of. Pass 7. 5. -8. 5 (David)